Teenage Dating and Domestic Violence

Abstract Violence is a part of our life. No matter how hard we try, it always finds a way to enter our homes and hearts. Domestic violence occurs when an individual uses force to injure another one physically, emotionally, sexually or financially. Women believe that they are abused because of not achieving household tasks, being unfaithful and refusing to have sex.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Teenage Dating and Domestic Violence specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More People do not always report about the domestic violence. Many feel scared, ashamed and guilty, so they try to hide everything not only from strangers, but even from their friends and other members of the family. Teenage dating violence has lots in common with domestic violence, as one partner abuses the other one in order to gain control over him/her. The motivation to conduct violence differs depending on the gender. Females claim to use forc e to defend themselves while males want to control the relationships. When girls try to use violence their partners usually laugh at them. When boys do it, girls tend to be in depression, commit suicide or take drugs. That is why it is important to report about the violence to the police and support groups in order to be safe and start a new life. Introduction Violence is a part of our life. No matter how hard we try, it always finds a way to enter our homes and hearts. Is seems that the greatest pain is the one caused by a person we love. Violence may be conducted by both genders, by one or two partners. In this case we are talking about the intimate partner violence, which includes teenage dating and domestic ones. It is even reported that about 17,000 homicides happen each year because of the intimate partner violence (Kenney, 2011). This abnormal relationship can turn not only an abuser into a murderer, but also a victim. It is commonly thought that women usually act savagely on e time while men tend to do long-term violence cycles. All these have a negative impact on the individuals, their family and society in common. That is why today many organizations offer mental and material support to the victims. Domestic Violence Domestic violence occurs when an individual uses force to injure another one physically, emotionally, sexually or financially. The force can be applied to a partner, child or elder. As a rule, women become victims of domestic violence.  From the very beginning only physical attack was considered to be domestic violence. Today we differentiate different types of it.Advertising Looking for research paper on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to Lynetta (2011), physical abuse occurs when a person uses his/her â€Å"size, strength or presence to hurt or control someone else† (p. 2). Emotional abuse is harder to prove, but it is not less serious and threa tening. It includes insulting one’s nearest and dearest, isolating, intimidations, criticizing etc. Any sexual actions determined to control a person are considered to be sexual abuse. It includes touching, rape or minimizing feelings. No one is protected from becoming a victim of domestic violence. It is even thought that â€Å"this is not random violence; the risk factor is being female† (Finley, 2013, p. 20). 20 per cent of women who experienced violence suffered from domestic abuse. 85 per cent of its victims are females, which is an extremely high number that shows the size of the problem and provokes its investigation. A lot of factors can influence people’s lives and increase the possibility of violence in a family. For example, a parent may feel guilty for the child’s behaviour and redirect it on the spouse. Or one may feel neglected because all attention is paid to a child and show dissatisfaction through abuse. If some members of a family have m ental or physical problems they might become victims (having no strength to retaliate) or abusers (trying to show their power). Financial problems and problems at work cause stress and make one nervous, which can also lead to domestic violence. If violent actions were a normal thing for several generations, it is difficult for the descendants to omit the repetition of the story. Some women are taught that all men behave in a certain way and are rude. People who spent a lot of time isolated from others may feel insecure and yield to circumstances. Alcohol and drug abuse scramble brains and make a person unstable. This can also happen because of the society’s influence. As people are made to think that one-parent households are abnormal and should not exist. It forces them to do everything to keep the family together. Women believe that they are abused because of not achieving household tasks, being unfaithful and refusing to have sex.  People do not always report about the d omestic violence. Many feel scared, ashamed and guilty, so they try to hide everything not only from strangers, but even from their friends and other members of the family. Some blame themselves being sure that such things happen only to people like them. Or if victims totally depend on the abuser, they may think that they will not survive without him/her.  It is very hard to prove that one suffers from abuse, if the partners do not want to admit and report the situation. However, there are some warning signs that might help to define a person who needs help. These are:Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Teenage Dating and Domestic Violence specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More â€Å"Frequent bruises and injuries that are explained by being clumsy or some other story; Absences from work or school due to bruises or injury; Low self-esteem, feeling that you cannot make it alone; Personality changes – a n outgoing person becomes quiet and shy around the partner; Fear of conflict – as a result of being battered some victims may generalize the experience of powerlessness; Self-blame – taking all the blame for thing that go wrong; Stress related problems – poor sleep, non-specific aches or pains, stomach problems, chronic headaches (Lynetta, 2011, p.10). To leave the abuser is a step to improve one’s life. But, unfortunately, it is not enough. Very often abusers try to stop or even kill the victim as they got to know that the escape is planning or has already taken place. That is why it is important to report about domestic violence to the police and support groups in order to be safe and start a new life. Teen Dating Violence It is normal for teenagers to have dates and spend time with their boyfriend or girlfriend. Unfortunately, having not enough own experience and looking at parents who are abused by their spouses, teens are likely to suffer from teen dating violence. It has lots in common with domestic violence, as one partner abuses other one in order to gain control over him/her. According to the research â€Å"1 in 5 teens who have been in a serious relationship report being hit, slapped or pushed by a partner† (Kenney, 2011, p. 53). Wanting to save independence and being ashamed, they usually keep silent and let nobody know about the abuse.  Teenagers dating violence includes physical, emotional and sexual abuse, just like domestic one. What is more, stalking is also typical for teens. This refers to â€Å"a pattern of harassing or threatening tactics that are unwanted and cause fear in the victim† (Understanding teen dating violence, 2014, p. 1). Due to the good knowledge and common use of technologies, teenagers tend to abuse their partners electronically. They send messages constantly or even post sexual photos of the partner. Teens are apt to believe that such things like name calling are normal and accep table in relationships. These actions may be considered to be a joke at first, but soon they might turn into abusive behaviour.  According to the research 22 per cent of women and 15 per cent of men suffer from dating violence between 11 and 17 years, and 9 percent of high school student claim that they were hurt by their partners on purpose. As in the case with domestic violence, females are the primary victims. The study shows that â€Å"90 per cent of abused boys reported feeling minimal pain or no pain at all during the worst abusive episode, while only 8.7 per cent of the abused girls reported minimal suffering or no suffering at all. A total of 47.8 per cent of abused girls indicated severe pain and bodily injuries as a result of the worst abusive episode† (Finley, 2013, p. 492). Also more than a half of the girls who were questioned claimed that their partners initiated the violence, as a counter to a quarter of boys.  The motivation to conduct violence differs dep ending on the gender. Females claim to use force to defend themselves while males want to control the relationships. When girls try to use violence their partners usually laugh at them. When boys do it, girls tend to be in depression, commit suicide or take drugs.Advertising Looking for research paper on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Conclusion Thus, it can be seen that a number of adults and teenagers suffer from abusive actions conducted by their partners. There are no particular abusers or victims, but females are more likely to be the ones who suffer. The situations between adults and adolescents are similar, but not identical. Teenage girls do not depend on their partners as much as adults. They do not live together, nor have children, so get more opportunities to leave. Teens are more influenced by their peers. They want to act like others and keep up with them. As adolescents have less experience, it is harder for them to cope with such situations, and they are likely to treat them as normal ones. Having problems at home, adolescents may prefer to stay with their partner paying no regard to the violence. There are a lot of programs made to protect people from abuse; however, the majority of them are focused on adults, not teenagers. References Finley, L. (2013). Encyclopedia of domestic violence and abuse . Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Kenney, K. (2011). Domestic violence. North Mankato, MN: ABDO. Lynetta. (2011). Domestic violence: You are not alone. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. Understanding teen dating violence. (2014). Web. This research paper on Teenage Dating and Domestic Violence was written and submitted by user Shatterstar to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Stupid White Men essays

Stupid White Men essays The book, Stupid White Men by Michael Moore is very different from any I have read. It talks more about what people have done wrong then about the people themselves. Each chapter has its own way of making fun of George Bush and supporting Al Gore, but most references to these individuals are in chapter one. Chapter two was an open letter to President Bush. One thing that did seem funny in this chapter was when George Bush was in Arizona. He was asked what his favorite childhood book was. Our President replied with The Hungry Caterpillar, but this book was not published until 1969, one year after our President graduated from Yale. The next chapter was mind boggling. I have flown many times from Arizona to Michigan during my life in the winter and summer but have never thought about the pilots in command of the aircraft. In Chapter three, Michael Moore describes how the Bush administration cut funding for the Department of Transportation. Commercial airline pilots were left with minimal incomes of $13,000-15,000 a year. After they have to pay for uniforms and taxes, their income is only about $9,000 a year. Most of the pilots are on welfare and food stamps. Chapter four is about how we should fear the government and not blacks. Michael Moore stresses that the government is made up mostly of whites. According to studies, the average income for black Americans is 61% less per year than the average white income. That is the same percentage difference as it was in 1880. Michael Moore states that the only thing that has really changed in America is that there are no more signs saying No Blacks Allowed. There has never been a black guy who built a bomb or used a bomb to kill a mass amount of people at once, whether in Oklahoma City, Columbine, or Hiroshima. In his film Roger and Me, a bunny is hit on the head. Some people have said it makes them physically sick. Som...

Simple Conjugations of Répéter in French

Simple Conjugations of Rà ©pà ©ter in French When you want to say repeated or repeating in French, youll use the verb  rà ©pà ©ter. Yet, to get it into the past or present tense, a conjugation is necessary. In this lesson, well introduce you to the most common and simplest forms of the verb so you can use it in a sentence. The Basic Conjugations of  Rà ©pà ©ter French verb conjugations are required in order to form complete sentences. Unlike English, which has only a few conjugations, French gives you a new form of the verb for every subject pronoun within each tense. This means that youll have more words to memorize. Rà ©pà ©ter  is a  stem-changing verb. This is apparent in the indicative mood and the present, future, and imperfect past tenses in the chart. Notice how in some forms, the second  e  remains an  Ãƒ ©Ã‚  and in others, it changes to an  Ãƒ ¨. Also, youll find that in the future tense, either option is available to you.   Other than that difference in spelling, youll find that the endings attached to the verb stem (rà ©pà ©t-) are the same used for  regular -er  verbs. In that sense, these conjugations can be easier if you already know some of those conjugations. With that, match the subject pronoun with the proper tense for your sentence. For example, I am repeating is  je rà ©pà ¨te  and we will repeat is  nous rà ©pà ©terons. Present Future Imperfect je rà ©pà ¨te rà ©pà ©terairà ©pà ¨terai rà ©pà ©tais tu rà ©pà ¨tes rà ©pà ©terasrà ©pà ¨teras rà ©pà ©tais il rà ©pà ¨te rà ©pà ©terarà ©pà ¨tera rà ©pà ©tait nous rà ©pà ©tons rà ©pà ©teronsrà ©pà ¨terons rà ©pà ©tions vous rà ©pà ©tez rà ©pà ©terezrà ©pà ¨terez rà ©pà ©tiez ils rà ©pà ¨tent rà ©pà ©terontrà ©pà ¨teront rà ©pà ©taient The Present Participle of  Rà ©pà ©ter The  present participle  of rà ©pà ©ter  also follows a regular pattern by adding an -ant  ending without a stem change. The result is the word  rà ©pà ©tant. Rà ©pà ©ter  in the Compound Past Tense In French, the compound past tense is the  passà © composà ©. This is constructed by  conjugating avoir  to the subjects present tense and following it with the  past participle  rà ©pà ©tà ©. It comes together simply with  jai rà ©pà ©tà ©Ã‚  meaning I repeated and  nous avons rà ©pà ©tà ©Ã‚  meaning we repeated. More Simple Conjugations of  Rà ©pà ©ter There will be times when you dont know if something was repeated and this is when  the subjunctive  will be useful. Then again, if something will be repeated only if something else happens, youll use  the conditional.   The passà © simple  and  the imperfect subjunctive  are literary tenses found frequently in formal writing. Subjunctive Conditional Passà © Simple Imperfect Subjunctive je rà ©pà ¨te rà ©pà ©teraisrà ©pà ¨terais rà ©pà ©tai rà ©pà ©tasse tu rà ©pà ¨tes rà ©pà ©teraisrà ©pà ¨terais rà ©pà ©tas rà ©pà ©tasses il rà ©pà ¨te rà ©pà ©teraitrà ©pà ¨terait rà ©pà ©ta rà ©pà ©tà ¢t nous rà ©pà ©tions rà ©pà ©terionsrà ©pà ¨terions rà ©pà ©tà ¢mes rà ©pà ©tassions vous rà ©pà ©tiez rà ©pà ©teriezrà ©pà ¨teriez rà ©pà ©tà ¢tes rà ©pà ©tassiez ils rà ©pà ¨tent rà ©pà ©teraientrà ©pà ¨teraient rà ©pà ©tà ¨rent rà ©pà ©tassent To order or request someone to Repeat! in French, use  the imperative.  When doing so, skip the subject pronoun and simply say, Rà ©pà ¨te ! Imperative (tu) rà ©pà ¨te (nous) rà ©pà ©tons (vous) rà ©pà ©tez

United Nations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

United Nations - Essay Example ome states together with other interest groups, for instance, have lobbied and convinced others to vote against certain issues of common good and interest of the US. For example, the US proposed amendment to change the Rome Statute so that they could join was opposed by many. These polarization and blocs have, therefore, undermined the original values stood for by the UN as an institution (Patrick & Forman, 2002). Despite these challenges, the UN remains one of the greatest platforms to implement the US multilateralism. With most major global threats such as nuclear and terrorism increasing, forums like the UN are, therefore, important for US. The above complications, therefore, results in the need for smart multilateralism. In implementing this, US have to make some hard decisions and determinations like asking for help but at the same time, not remaining vulnerable. Its leaders and policy makers in the diplomatic forums must also be strategic, consistent in their pursuit and remain respectful. While ensuring all these, they must still find avenues of preventing tyranny in voting blocs, thus, preventing countering its interest and weakening its priorities and efforts (Fallon & Gayle, 2010). In providing best options for achieving best outcomes, the US should, therefore, create a number of options such as; creating alternatives to the following issues of concern. Better human rights, community of democracies transformation, security structures and refurbishment of economic systems at the international levels (Fallon & Gayle, 2010). Fallon, W. J., & Gayle, H. D. (2010). Report of the CSIS Commission on Smart Global Health Policy: A Healthier, Safer, and More Prosperous World. Washington, D.C: Center for Strategic and International

Advantages of owning a franchise Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Advantages of owning a franchise - Term Paper Example Over the recent years, franchising has become a beneficial venture and has attracted many entrepreneurs. Franchise refers to the license describing the relationship between two individuals; the franchisor and franchisee (Inma, 2005). In this case, the license includes support, control, trademarks and fees. Franchising allows the goodwill, reputation, expertise, and technical knowledge of the franchise to be used together with the investment of the franchisee so as to produce and sell goods and services. In other words, a franchise is a form of business that involves one organization using another organization’s successful business model. Owing to its effectiveness in combining the skills, investments, expertise, and knowledge of the franchisor and the franchisee, franchising has become more and more popular among business people over the last few years. There are several advantages of owning a franchise which are having: continual support, financial assistance, and proven prof itability. Continual Support One main advantage of franchising is that the franchisee is subject to continued support from the franchisor. Owning a franchise helps one to get various forms of support such as pre-opening training in which one is trained about the technologies, operations, marketing and financial aspects of a business. During pre-opening training, the franchisee is trained on how a particular business operates and how to handle matters that the business may face (Kong 2011). In other words the franchisee enjoys ongoing support as the situation dictates, the franchisor acting as a mentor to the franchisee. In this respect, the franchisee and their employees may receive continuous training as and when the need arises. Given that the franchisor benefits from the success of the franchisee, they are bound to go an extra step to ensure that the franchisee succeeds in business. This being the case, the franchisor will always be ready to offer continuous technical support to the franchisee which is good for the wellbeing of the business and both of the parties. The franchisee can also be offered financial support for advertising and promotion by the franchisor. It is important for an entrepreneur to understand the different aspects of the business they intend to engage in. In many cases, businesses wind up simply because the entrepreneur lacks the requisite skills and knowledge, technologies, finances, or support. While these are some of the challenges that people who engage in other forms of businesses face, a person who starts a franchise has higher chance of succeeding. With this kind of support, the franchisee is able to start and grow his/her venture very fast without many problems associated with lack of knowledge and finances. Financial Assistance The second advantage of franchising is that unlike it happens with other forms of businesses, a franchisee can easily receive financial support to start and run a franchise. It is well known that many q ualified franchisees do not have enough capital to run an outlet. The franchisor may finance the franchisee either directly or through third parties (Beshel 2001). With respect to third party financing, the franchisee is financed by a third party but the franchisor acts as guarantor. If the cost of general advertizing is high, the franchisor may also offer financial assistance to the franchisee so as to help in increasing sales. This is aimed at generating more income to recover the advertizing costs. In other cases, the franchisor may opt to temporarily exempt the franchisee from paying the franchising fees or remitting a share of the profit so that the franchise may achieve stability. With the franchisor offering financial support, the franchisee is able to set up an outlet even if he has limited capital. Proven Profitability Franchises are generally associated with high success levels and, therefore, high profitability. Operating a sole proprietorship,

Competition in the banking industry

Competition in the banking industry The banking system of a country plays a vital role in social welfare of the people in the country and of people of the world in general. It offers services to enterprises and consumers to undertake their business activities and to easily perform their day-to-day transactions. It is necessary to ensure an efficient functioning of the banking system; otherwise, a dull and bogus banking system brings about an ultimate threat of potential for financial instability. That is the reason why the competition in financial sector is of much importance. The importance is for many reasons; i.e. it relates to the efficiency, quality and innovation of the production of financial services. Most importantly, it helps in taking careful decisions in policy making for banks (Claessens and Laevens, 2003). In recent years, a lot of research work has been carried out, investigating the nature of competition in the banking industry along with the degree of competition, factors affecting the competition and the effects of competition on other market factors on micro level as well as on macro economic level. An explanation for the vast amount of studies on this topic is that competition can not be measured directly due to the lack of detailed information on prices and costs of the various banking products (Bikker et al., 2007). This topic has also gained popularity among bankers, economists and policy makers because of globalisation, liberalization of financial markets and banking harmonization all over the world, especially in the European Union. Since early 90s, there are a lot of regulatory changes observed in the banking industry in order to achieve the establishment of a single, competitive market in the financial sector of Europe. It was initially triggered with the implementation of the Second Banking Coordination Directive defining conditions for Single Banking License. As a consequence, entry barriers have been removed substantially for the new entrants increasing competition, coupled with a significant consolidation process. The intuition behind this was Market Contestability; a market is contestable if there are no barriers to entry, exit is absolutely costless and the prices are highly elastic to demands for industry output. The key idea is that a firm may be compelled to be more competitive and efficient by the prospect of new entrants (Allen and Engert, 2007). Furthermore, costless exit means that if a firm enters into a new market and then decides to withdraw, it is required to recover sunk entry costs. These features insure that even if a market has a small number of active firms, it is still effectively contestable and competitive (Nathan A. and Neave E., 1989). Moreover, the pro-competitive deregulation process has increased the level of competition (Cetorelli, 2004), particularly in non-traditional and non-interest bearing areas of banking activity (Goddard et al. 2001). Trivieri F. (2005) documents that in the course of the 1990s, the Italian banking system underwent profound changes at normative and institutional levels, which led among other things to a significant relaxation of the entry barriers, to the liberalisation of bank branching, to the redefinition of ownership structure and to a large number of mergers and acquisitions. The effects of these transformations and, in particular, of those linked to the process of consolidation have been studied by many authors (see, among others: Resti, 1997; Angelini and Cetorelli, 2000; Messori, 2001; Sapienza, 2002; Focarelli et al., 2002; Focarelli and Panetta, 2003). According to European Central Bank 1999, 29 percent banks had been merged or shrunk between 1985 and 1997. In Italian banking industry, the Second Banking Directive was implemented in 1993, followed by a 20 percent reduction in the number of banks as a result of consolidation. It is observed that competition has been increased in recent years in European banking markets which is also generally true for Italy. Angelini and Cetorelli (2000) cite that a rise in the competition is easily found in European banking markets during recent years. Danthine, Giavazzi, Vives and von Thadden (1999) report a somewhat generalized decrease in banks net interest margins across Europe during the 1990s. Consistent with the European evidence, a declining trend in bank margins is also observed across different markets in Italy. This paper focuses only on the banking industry of Italy and analyzes the evaluation of competitive conditions, nature and the degree of competition in the Italian banking industry using firm-level balance sheet data. In this paper, we explore more thoroughly the competitive nature and degree of competition in the Italian banking industry by adopting a methodology developed in empirical industrial organization and used extensively in banking. Further more, we will compare our results with previous results to find out that whether the degree of competition has been increased or it has been as same as it was in the past. The setup of the remainder of this paper is as follows. Section 2 contains some important information about structure and features of a competitive banking industry which helps in understanding the competition more thoroughly. Next Section 3 introduces the original Panzar-Rosse model along with the previous studies in the field. Section 4 gives a brief explanation of the general Panzar and Rosse model. This section also shows the interpretation of the H-statistic along with the description of the testing hypothesis. Following Section 5 deals with the empirical model used in this study including long-run equilibrium test. This section also contains the banks data used for the empirical illustration for our theoretical findings. Finally in the last Section 6 empirical results and conclusion is discussed. OPTIMAL COMPETITIVE STRUCTURE OF THE BANKING SYSTEM According to Northcott C. (2004), competition improves efficiency and growth in the banking sector but market power or concentration is necessary for stability in the industry. Moreover, competitive environment promotes productive and allocative efficiency leading towards economies of scale while market power improves credit availability, stability, quality of banks loan portfolios, screening of loans and monitoring them. As a result, market power should not be eliminated, but rather used to facilitate an environment that promotes competitive behaviour. FEATURES OF A COMPETITIVE BANKING INDUSTRY Concentration weakens competition by fostering collusive behaviour among firms. Increased market concentration was found to be associated with higher prices and greater than normal profits (Bain, 1951). Smirlock (1985) and Evanoff and Fortier (1988) argue that higher profits in concentrated markets could be the result of greater productive efficiency. Berger (1995) finds some evidence that the efficiency hypothesis holds in US banking. In Europe, on the other hand, structural factors appeared to be more important and the SCP hypothesis seemed to hold (Goddard et al., 2001). If a well-developed financial system is provided then contestability improves with new entrants. Contestability is not necessarily related to concentration or the number of banks. Concentration and competition can exist together because of the presence of asymmetric information and branches and the effect and use of new technologies. (Northcott C, 2004) LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL ISSUES: According to Bikker and Haaf (2000), initially the economic literature on the issue of competition in the industrial sector can be divided into two main categories; structural approach and non-structural approach. Structural approach can be further divided into two main paradigms. First type of structural approach is Structure-Conduct-Performance (SCP) paradigm, which tells us that the degree of competition is determined by the structural characteristics of the market, such as, number of firms, size of the firms, etc. The SCP was developed in the early 1950s by Mason (1939) and Bain (1951). Bain (1951) constructs the market power hypothesis that collusive behaviour is initiated by high concentration which results in large profits for firms. Later, Stigler (1964) and Demsetz propose efficiency hypothesis in contrast of marker power hypothesis stating that the efficiency of bigger firms may be the reason for high concentration instead of collusive behaviour of firms, while during 1980s, Baumol, Panzar and Willig (1983) build contestability hypothesis. Their hypothesis states that if entry and exit barriers are relaxed then competition may be prevailed (Mkrtchyan A. 2005). Second approach is Efficient-Structure-Hypothesis (ESH), which states that greater concentration in the industry not only increases the level of efficiency in the sector but also increases the degree of competition in that sector. Non-structural approach is based on describing the nature of competition in the context of the studies of New Economic Industrial Organization (NIEO). It suggests non-structural models to analyse the competition in markets which do not rely on the markets structure. Particularly, Klein (1971), Baumol, Panzar, and Willig [1982] provide a theory that shows that market competitiveness can be inferred irrespective of the structure of the market. NIEO studies include Iwata Model (1974), Brasnahan Model (1982), Rosse and Panzar (1977), Panzar and Rosse (1982), Panzar and Rosse Model (1987), etc. Non-structural method or firms input-output cost studies have gained more popularity than the structural approach among academics, researchers, analysts and policy makers. Particularly Panzar and Rosse model (1987) is the most widely used and is very popular model for competition. Duncan (2003) mentions that the Panzar and Rosse (P-R) model provides a comprehensive and simple method to calculate the competition. It does not require intensive data as compared to other models and has been firmly related to theoretical side. The information required for this model is easily available as it calculates the sum of the factor prices elasticities estimated from a reduced form of revenue function. The Rosse-Panzar test has been developed to examine competitive conditions in the light of the contestability theory (Rosse and Panzar, 1977; 1982; 1987). This approach measures the degree of competition by analyzing how each banks revenues react to changes in input prices. It has primarily emerged to test market conditions that encompass all spectrums of competitiveness away from the restrictions brought about by the structural concepts. Basically, it depends on the relationship between gross revenues of the firm and the change in its input prices by using a statistic which is called the H-statistics that measures the sum of elasticities of total revenue with respect to each input price. As this approach includes the revenue equation so for banks, mainly the revenues are interest revenue. In this approach, h-statistics is used to measure the degree of competition. The H-statistics will tell us the responsiveness of revenues to the changes in input prices. If h-statistics is less t han or equal to zero then there will be monopoly, if it is between zero and one then there will be monopolistic competition and if it is equal to one then there will be perfect competition (Greenberg J. and Simbanegavi W.). This approach is preferred when testing the data of different individual banks. Moreover, P-R approach yields similar results without any ambiguity as it has clearly defined hypotheses with specific interpretations. PREVIOUS GENERAL STUDIES ABOUT BANK COMPETITION: Rearrange the literature review according to the claessens and neave. A great number of papers have been written on investigating competition in the banking industry using Panzar and Rosse model (1987). But the motivations for analyzing the nature of the competition are vastly varied like contribution of institutional and structural factors, growth, regions, stability, financing, efficiency, contestability, consolidation, cross-border capital flows, risks etc. The summary of the previous works and their findings can be seen in the Appendix Table 1. Panzar J. and Rosse J. (1987) develop test for Monopoly and use linear regression model to estimate the H-statistic for the newspaper industry, reporting that it is vague to conclude that the newspaper firms earn oligopoly profits. Looking at the cross-country studies carried out in the EU banking markets, one of the earliest analysis is undertaken by Molyneux et al. (1994) who test the Panzar-Rosse statistics on a sample of banks in France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the UK for the period 1986-89. Results indicate monopolistic competition in all countries except Italy where the monopoly hypothesis can not be rejected. Shaffer and Disalvo (1994) use this test to analyze the data of a duopoly banking market in south central Pennsylvania to exercise the procedure for concentration and competitive conduct. Waleed Murjan and Cristina Ruza (2002) examine the Arab Middle Eastern banking markets with this test concluding that the banking sector is more competitive in non-oil-producing countries than the banking industry in oil-producing countries. Gelos and Roldos (2002) apply this method on 8 different countries of Latin America and Europe, finding that market contestability prevents the competitive pressure from declining which can happen because of the consolidation while Claessens and Laeven (2003) process the data of 50 countries obtaining the same results. Bikker and Haaf (2002) assess the banking industry in 17 European countries and six countries that are outside of Europe comparing competitive conditions and market structure. Goddard, J. and Wilson, J. (2006) report misspecification bias in the revenue equation for the banking sectors of 19 developed and developing countries. They suggested a dynamic revenue equation for unbiased estimation rather than fixed effects estimation which is severely biased towards zero. Gilbert (1984) and Berger (1995) test the data for 8,235 banks in 23 developed nations producing the results that a higher degree of market power has less risk exposure. Yuan Y. (2005) assesses the competition in Chinese Banking sector and comes up with the results that China already has had perfectly competitive condition before new foreign entrants and it still has the same situation. Duncan D. (2003) presents the empirical assessment of the market structure of the Jamaican banking sector and competitive trends in the market finding monopolistic behaviour. Al-Muharrami S. et al. (2006) take GCC Arab countries into observation and suggest that Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the UAE operate under perfect competition; and Bahrain and Qatar operate under conditions of monopolistic competition. Nathan A. and Neave E. (1989) exercise the test on Canadian financial industry and reject the hypothesis of monopoly power in Canadas financial system. PREVIOUS STUDIES ABOUT COMPETITION IN ITALIAN BANKING INDUSTRY: A great number of studies on competition in financial sector of EU countries have been reported which also include Italy in general. But there are also some research-papers which are produced specifically for Italy. Some of them are: Cetorelli N. and Angelini P. (2000) study the case of the Italian banking industry and cite that competitive conditions have improved substantially after 1992, and it is believed that the introduction of the Single Banking License in 1993 also helps fostering the competitive behaviour in Italian banking industry. DellAriccia G. and Bonaccorsi E. (2003) investigate the relationship between bank competition and firm creation. They document that the effects of competition in the banking sector on the creation of firms in the non-financial sector are less favourable to the emergence of new firms in industries where information asymmetries are greater. Coccorese P. (2002) rejects the theory that competition can be easily reduced by the collusive behaviour of the firms, and comes up with the conclusion that strong concentration does not necessarily prevent competition among firms. Trivieri F. (2005) compares the banks involved in the cross-ownership and banks that are not involved. He finds that Italian banks involved in cross-ownership are less competitive than the banks which are not involved in cross-ownership, hence proving cross-ownership decreases competition. GENERALIZED PANZAR AND ROSSE (1987) APPROACH: P-R model assumptions: Firstly, there are some assumptions and conditions in which Panzar and Rosse model works. The model supposes that banks operate in long run equilibrium. Although Goddard Wilson (2006), documents that this condition is not needed any more if a correctly specified dynamic revenue equation is adopted which permits virtually unbiased estimation of the H-statistic. This eliminates the need for a market equilibrium assumption, but incorporates instantaneous adjustments as a special case. So in this paper long run equilibrium postulate holds. Another assumption is that the market participants affect the performance of the banks by their actions. Another postulate is that the price elasticity of demand is greater than unity. Moreover, the model posits that there is a homogenous cost structure. Furthermore, profits are maximised to obtain the equilibrium number of banks and the equilibrium output. In long rum equilibrium, it is known that banks maximise their profits when, marginal revenue eq uals to marginal cost (Bikker and Haaf, 2000). Trivieri F. (2005) also adds that the banks are treated as single product firms which mainly provide intermediation services. EXPLANATION OF PR MODEL: Claessens and Laeven (2003) cite that the Panzar and Rosse model studies the impact of changes in factor input prices reflected in equilibrium revenues by a specific bank. Bikker and Haaf (2000) write that Panzar and Rosse model gives simple models for oligopolistic, competitive and monopolistic markets. This test works on the reduced form revenue equation and uses H-statistics. This H-statistics can tell us not only the nature of competition but also gives information about the degree of the competition. H-statistics if measures between 0 and 1, it is monopolistic competition, 0 is considered as monopoly and 1 as perfect competition. Here, a general banking market model is used, which determines equilibrium output and the equilibrium number of banks by maximising profits. The model is also able to allow for bank-specific variables in the equation. According to Bikker and Haaf (2000), in the long run equilibrium, it is known that banks maximise their profits at the break-even point. The break-even point is where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. So, the bank i maximises its profits, where marginal revenue equals marginal cost: (1) Ri refers to revenues and Ci to costs of bank i (the prime denoting marginal), xi is the output of bank i, n is the number of banks, wi is a vector of m factor input prices of bank i, zi is a vector of exogenous variables that shift the banks revenue function, ti is a vector of exogenous variables that shift the banks cost function. Secondly, it means that in equilibrium at the market level, the zero profit constraint holds (Bikker and Haaf, 2000): (2) Variables marked with an asterisk (*) represent equilibrium values. Panzar and Rosse define a measure of competition H as the sum of the elasticities of the reduced-form revenues with respect to factor prices (Bikker and Haaf, 2000): (3) According to Khan, M. (2009), it measures the percentage change in (equilibrium) revenue due to a one percent change in all input factor prices (change in cost). From duality theory, it is known that one percent increase in factor prices will lead to one percent upward shift in cost function. The impact of this shift in cost function on the (equilibrium) revenue of the banks is directly related to the degree of competition in the banking sector. Bikker and Haaf (2000) further explain that Panzar and Rosse prove that under monopoly or under perfectly collusive oligopoly, an increase in input prices will increase marginal costs, reduce equilibrium output and subsequently reduce revenues; hence H will be zero or negative. An increase in input prices raises both marginal and average costs by an equal proportion as the cost is homogeneous of degree one in input prices without altering the optimal output of any individual firm. Exit of some firms increases the demand faced by each of the remaining firms, thereby leading to an increase in prices and total revenues by as same amount as the rise in costs, resulting perfect competition where H-statistic is positive but not greater than unity. In this case marginal and average cost will be increased by the rise in input prices (Nathan A. and Neave H., 1989). INTERPRETATION OF H-STATISTICS: Panzar and Rosse prove that, under monopolistic competition, H is between zero and unity. H is a decreasing function of the perceived demand elasticity, so H increases with the competitiveness of the banking industry. As a result, this H-statistic can serve as a continuous interpretation of the competitiveness. Although this is not mentioned by Panzar and Rosse (1987) but with some assumptions this continuous interpretation is correct. So, the testable hypotheses are: The banking industry is characterised by monopoly for H=0, monopolistic competition for 0 HYPOTHESIS TESTING; Khan, M. (2009) mentions: Two-sided Perfect Competition Test: Maintaining the long run equilibrium postulate, if banks are operating under perfect competition, a one percent change in cost will lead to a one percent change in revenues. Output will not be changed if the demand function is perfectly elastic under perfect competition, output price and cost both will increase by the same extent. This implies that under perfect competition, H-statistic will be equal to one. Statistically, we will test the following hypothesis. H0 : H = 1 Perfect competition prevails in the banking sector. H1 : H à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚   1 There is no perfect competition in the banking sector. Two-sided Monopolistic Competition Test: If banks are operating in monopolistically competitive environment, one percent increase in cost will lead to less than one percent increase in revenue as the bank faces fairly inelastic demand function. Statistically, we will test the following hypothesis. H0 : 0 H1 : H à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 0 or H à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 1 Banks are not operating in a monopolistic competition environment. One-sided Monopoly Test: Standard theory of market structure suggests that the sum of factor input price elasticities should be less than zero if the underlying market structure is monopoly. Statistically, we will test the following hypothesis. H0 : H à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 0 Banks are operating in a monopoly condition. H1 : H > 0 Banks are not operating in a monopoly condition. (Khan M., 2009) EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY: The test is robust with any definition of market whether it is within the national boundaries or it is the global international banking industry because there is no need to specify a geographic market. Before testing, it is commonly necessary to obtain a reduced form of revenue equation which consists of revenue as a dependent variable, factor input prices as independent variables and some controlled or firms specific factors. The basic equation is: Total interest revenue = total cost + controlled variables + error term The panel data is used in the paper which is the data collected over multiple time periods. It is the combination of cross-sectional and time series dimensions. Hence, it can be derived as: Ci = a + Byi + Ei (4) Ct = a + Byt + Et (5) Where, C is the dependent variable, a is constant term, B is the coefficient of the independent term, y is the independent variable and E is the error term. Combining both the equations (4) and (5), the final basic equation can be given as: Cit = a + Byit + Eit (6) But Panzar and Rosse define the H as the sum of the elasticities of the reduced-form revenues with respect to factor prices, so the econometric model of the Panzar and Rosse statistic may be represented by the following equation: (7) For i = 1,..I; t = 1,T; Where, R is a measure of gross revenue. W is a vector of factor prices (the H statistic is given by the sum of the estimated coefficients of the variables in this vector); S is a vector of scale variables; X is a vector of exogenous and bank-specific variables that may shift the cost and revenue schedule, ÃŽÂ µ indicates the error term; I is the total number of banks; T is the number of periods observed (Trivieri, 2005). To calculate the sum of elasiticities, it is necessary to estimate the log linear model instead of estimating a simple linear model that is the reason for taking the log of all the variables in equation (7). The sign of the variables of different costs and bank specific variables are positive showing a direct relationship to revenues (Trivieri, 2005). In this pooled regression, extra intercepts or dummies for time are used, but dummies for individuals are not included because of the application of within-group-estimators. Because with-in-group estimator takes first difference and removes the individuals dummies variables by itself. Thus being a fixed effects model, it measures differences in intercepts for each group and the differences are calculated by a separate dummy variable for each group (Trivieri, 2005). The use of fixed effects panel regression with time dummies allows calculating the relevant parameters of the empirical model. Furthermore, unobserved heterogeneity is controlled by the fixed effects too avoiding omitted variable problems (Trivieri, 2005). In this paper, the intermediation approach developed by Sealey and Lindley (1977), is followed which tells that deposits, labour and capital are inputs for the banks. The empirical model applied in this paper is as: LGIRTA = B1LLABCOST + B2LCAPCOST + B3LFUNDCOST + B4LLTA + B5LBMIX (8) Where, LGIRTA = Log of Gross Interest Revenues over Total Assets LLABCOST = Log of Labour factor price LCAPCOST = Log of Capital Cost LFUNDCOST = Log of Funding Cost LLTA = Log of Loans to Total Assets LBMIX = Log of Loans to Banks and Clients over Total Loans This paper addresses the banking industry of Italy. The data includes 480 banks approximately, of all sizes in Italy. The data contains two different samples. First sample consists of the data from 1995 to 1997, total 3 years, and the second sample contains data from 1997 to 2000, total 3 years. We make a comparison and inference between the results obtained by these two samples through our empirical model and find out the competitive behaviour of Italian financial market. LONG RUN EQUILIBRIUM TEST: An important underlying condition of the H-statistic for competition is the long run equilibrium. Panzar and Rosse (1987) cite that this postulate is crucial for the cases of perfect competition and monopolistic competition. Though, it is not a fundamental assumption in the case of monopoly because when H is less than or equal to zero then it is a long run assumption for monopoly (Trivieri, 2005). Long run equilibrium test for the observations can be done with the prerequisite that: competitive markets equalise the return rates across firms, so that in equilibrium these rates should not be correlated with input prices (Trivieri, 2005). In our empirical model as in Shaffer (1982), this test can be carried out by re-estimating the equation with the proxy for the return on assets, ROA, as dependent variable in the calculation of H. In this context, H = 0 implies that the data are in long run equilibrium (Trivieri, 2005). The intuition behind this theory is that, return on assets, ROA, should not be related to input prices. De Bandt and Davis (1999), define the equilibrium condition as the state in which changes in banking sector are considered as gradual, long run equilibrium for the observations does not mean that competitive conditions remain the same and do not change through out the period of observations (Trivieri, 2005). Although it is inappropriate to use Rosse-Panzar test which is based on a static equilibrium framework, but in the real financial market, the equilibrium adjustments are less than instantaneous, resulting disequilibrium on some points in time or frequently, or always. Moreover, when it is known that the adjustments towards equilibrium are partial and not instantaneous then using fixed effects estimation for the static revenue equation will result in biased H-statistics toward zero (Goddard J. and Wilson J., 2006). For the long run equilibrium, we estimate the following equation: LROA = B1LLABCOST + B2LCAPCOST + B3LFUNDCOST + B4LLTA + B5LBMIX (9) DATA AND SAMPLE DESCRIPTION: The empirical part of this paper uses an unbalanced panel data set on which the Panzar and Rosse methodology has been applied containing a range of Italian banking firms. The data and the samples used for the estimation of H indicator are provided by Dr. Leone Leonida, Queen Mary, University of London. The data used in this paper are annual and refer to the period 1995-1997 (3 years) for the first sample. The first sample for the econometric analysis is made up of an unbalanced panel data of 480 financial institutions of all sizes, for a total of 1401 observations. The number of parameters is 487. The longest time series is 3 years long and the shortest time series is only 2 years long with 2 time dummies. The second sample covers the period of 1998-2000 (3 years) having 1330 number of observation from 474 banks of all sized. The number of parameters is 481. The longest time series is 3 years long and the shortest time series is 2 years long depicting unbalanced panel data with 2 time dummies. In the Appendix, Table 3 provides a summary of the definition of relevant dependent variable, independent variables, bank specific factors variables and control variables. LGIRTA is the log of gross interest revenue over total assets, which is used as dependent variable, also used by De Bandt and Davis (2000), and Trivieri F. (2005). Trivieri (2005) points out that according to Vesala (1995) and De Bandt and Davis (2000) it is the most appropriate choice because it then represents a price equation and not the revenue equation. Moreover, our equation will be consistent with the conceptual structure used by the application of Panzar and Rosses statistic to the banking sector. The choice for taking only the interest part of the total revenue of banks is consistent with underlying notion of the P-R model that financial intermediation is the core business of most banks. However, Shaffer (1982) and Nathan and Neaves (1989) have included total revenue instead of only interest revenue because of the fact that banks have increased their non-interest activities and services which have started generating income other than interest. But s

Crime: Fraud and Overall White Collar Essay

â€Å"Criminal phenomenon† is known as white collar crime. White collar crime was firstly talked by Edwin H. Sutherland who was a criminologist. He defined white collar crime in a presidential meeting of the American Sociological Society. This meeting was held at the state of Philadelphia in December 1939 to 1940s. He defined white collar crime as â€Å"a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation†. (â€Å"Sutherland, 1949:9†). White collar crime includes several of examples such as illegal exploitation of employees, violation, taxes, computer crimes and many more. White collar crime is most characteristically outlined in relation of class attitudes towards those who commit it. Although these offences are penalised by the law but it’s usually considered by the courts and by sections of general public but as much as less guilty crimes are made by individuals there are generally punished by the courts. White collar crime is one of the most dangerous crimes which individuals make profit from couple of hundreds to dollars to millions of dollars and it can be carried out by only one person or a group of people. White collar offenders are normally citizens that come from high social status such as people with degrees in middles class and upper class. If a person is poor there are not most likely to commit crime. This type of crime affects everyone from the communication from business companies. Between white collar crime and street crime there is a massive impact, although white collar criminals often learn to attract less to public attention but the huge public attention attract more depending on an individual and a business. As I mention above people who commit white collar crime are more likely in the middle to upper class societies such as doctors. White collar crime occurs in many forms of ways but this doesn’t involve any physical assault on a person. The occurrences of white collar crime it causes damage to everybody who is in involved in business. A customer will able to be harmed in unplanned events which is recognised as â€Å"organised criminals†, this relates to sales of illegal products. As an overall white collar crime carries brands which are harmful than any other systems of crime. White collar crime is the highest crime to discover or to catch. Individuals that commit white collar crime in the market sections, the media find it difficult to understand because the supervision needs to be updated regularly. White collar consumers have a great deal of expectations by harming the society then other kind of crimes this is because it is â€Å"versatility†. Hazel Croall said in 2008 in the house market there were numerous of people who lost their houses which caused loads of distress in society. Many people suffered but yet white collar crime offenders who made these offences there are normally committed in a large organisations and it makes it more difficult to find these offenders. J Kelly Strader said, the media attends to simply report a minimum of incidents in white collar crime due to having enough evidence been provided. The Deceptive marketing it’s not controlled by the law but it is set as codes and standards which are weakly enforced. The value of prosecuting white collar crime is extremely high for the government to perceive a large percentage of the offenders. Electronic banking is used in the modern which links to street crime offenders, this doesn’t help it becomes worse which the offenders continue to expand to commit in certain areas. As better or worse the government began to feel pressure of the population of the offenders. White collar crime increases the funds in some areas due to crimes been made. I believe that people who are more educated in the late 20s there lean to commit more of white collar crime in technology but as statistics say that the government have has problems to keep up with white collar crime offences in money and technology. Hazel Croall and Edwin Sutherland suggested that white collar crime is still been questioned as from today but it is difficult to figure out how many problems it is causing to society. Most of the studies who study white collar crime argued in 2002 the society blamed the U. S government for the failure which enforced by the law because of the fraud offences which was committed by the street crimes. Business fraud is the most common fraud as day to day in business setting in street crimes in poor communities. As a business fraud in U. S white collar crime cost them a billions of dollars per year but as any other fraud or crimes it cost the U. S organisation a least many then billion as annually. As an average business organisation have lost a lot of millions per a year this is due to employees committing they’re own employees as frauds. Men are twice more likely to commit then women in white collar crime for example 85% of men as mangers cause more fraud in a daily then women as employees but there different types of frauds in society which are been committed by men and these are insurance fraud. An individual making a false claim to insurance companies this links into personal injury and property damage. By this way people earn more money in other words being selfish and greedy. Insurance frauds include things like compasentation claims in accidents and many more. As a insurance fraud the cost as per a year in today world it cost them the twice in the lasr century for example million billions of dollars as annually in yealy. Another common fraud is arson where as a person to a youngster start a fire on a building such as their own business to claim insurance money but in this situation people claim fraud to lie to earn more money for they own business. Credit fraud is the other common fraud committed by white collar crime, a he or she as stolen someone else is credit card by using there information. Credit card fraud causes a million of lost per year. Hazel Croal, in the U. S credit card fraud is the most common fraud a least three quarters of credit fraud has been reported of white collar crime. Why is white collar crime the most dangerous type of crime? Edwin Sutherland implied that white collar crime is most likely to suave and less fourth right but less criminals (white collar crime: the uncut version 1983). The uncut verison 1983 in white collar crime, Sutherland theory at that time was one of the best theories because it concered all types of crime. As statistics white collar crime was never included this was because his theory didn’t support the fact on upper class or business on men weather there commits more crime then women. Sutherland provided four types of evidence which supported his theory and these are personal document, diffusion of illegal practice, isolation and social disograntons. Federal Bureau, believed that white collar crime became a very large of problem to everyone, he said it was punished by the law. He said the law had no control on the hard crime as the crime got out of hand or convicted in the streets. He said it has caused effects on different people lives. Society suggested the government may have took this serious but won’t doing the job enough has it became more serious and treated communities to suffer more. Quinney (1973) outlined two denfititos of white collar cime, occupational and coporate. Occupational crime is committed by a person in occupation. Whereas corporate crime is committed by the corpatrions as a whole the crime is planned and committed for the corporation finaical gain. Reference Joyce P, Criminal justice, an introduction to crime and the criminal justice system, USA and Canada, 2006 HG, org, Global Legal Resources, assessed date 28th April 2013 http://www. hg. org/white-collar-crime. html Strander, Kelly, J Undestanding white collar crime assessed date 28th April 2013 http://www. lexisnexis. com/lawschool/study/understanding/pdf/WhiteCollarCh1. pdf Croal H, Understanding white collar crime assessed date 28th April 2013 https://www. mcgraw-hill. co. uk/openup/chapters/0335204279. pdf